Crucifixion and the Sufferings of Jesus Christ

Crucifixion is often best understood by looking at the image of Jesus Christ being hung on the cross. Many Christians believe that through His death, Jesus saved mankind. The New Testament gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John each describe in detail the immense suffering Jesus endured until His death on the cross. Without understanding the context of crucifixion, readers might approach these accounts superficially. Let’s explore what crucifixion really involved.

Crucifixion: What Is It?

Crucifixion, a form of execution, binds and nails a person on a tree or wooden frame, subjecting the person to public display. Later, the Romans adopted and standardized crucifixion using a cross as one of their capital punishments. The cross upon which Jesus was crucified is referred to as a ‘tree’ in some biblical texts.

Galatians 3:13 (New Living Translation) But Christ has rescued us from the curse pronounced by the law. When he was hung on the cross, he took upon himself the curse for our wrongdoing. For it is written in the Scriptures, “Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree.”

In the Old Testament, it is written that a condemned person was bound to a vertical stake such as a tree or pole even before the cross was invented.

Deuteronomy 21:22-23 If someone guilty of a capital offense is put to death and their body is exposed on a pole, you must not leave the body hanging on the pole overnight. Be sure to bury it that same day, because anyone who is hung on a pole is under God’s curse. You must not desecrate the land the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance…

Deuteronomy 21:22-23 (New Living Translation) If someone has committed a crime worthy of death and is executed and hung on a tree overnight. You must bury the body that same day, for anyone who is hung is cursed in the sight of God…

It is written that anyone who is hung is considered cursed by God. The book of Galatians explains that Christ was hung on the cross to take upon himself the curse for our wrongdoing.

The Origins and History of Crucifixion

Crucifixion likely originated with the Persians and its earliest recorded use dates back to 519 BCE, when King Darius I of Persia reportedly crucified 3,000 of his political enemies in Babylon. This form of punishment was used by other civilisations throughout history, including the Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and later the Romans. It was intended to inflict maximum suffering and pain upon the convicted individual. The Romans developed crucifixion into a form of capital punishment mainly to deter serious crimes such as treason or murder. This punishment was typically reserved for rebels, non-citizens, and slaves, while Roman citizens were generally spared from it. For example, Spartacus, a Roman slave who led a revolt sparking the Third Servile War (73-71 BCE), witnessed 6,000 of his followers being crucified as a deterrent. Furthermore, historical records from the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE suggest that as many as 500 Jews were crucified every day.

Various types of crosses were used for crucifixion, including shapes like crux commissa (T-shape), crux immissa (†-shape), and crux decussata (X-shape).

The intense pain of crucifixion is reflected in the word ‘excruciating’, which originates from the Latin ‘excruciatus’, meaning ‘to torture or torment as if being crucified’. It’s difficult to comprehend the horror of being sentenced to death by crucifixion, the same pains Jesus faced. While we may never fully understand the process, let’s explore the biblical accounts of what Jesus endured.

Before Crucifixion: Jesus’ Arrest and Trials

After celebrating the Passover with his disciples, Jesus went to the Mount of Olives. There, He knelt down and prayed intensely. As Jesus prayed, his sweat fell to the ground like drops of blood.

Luke 22:44 And being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was like drops of blood falling to the ground.

In this instance, Jesus likely suffered from hematidrosis (or hematohidrosis), an extremely rare medical condition where a person sweats blood. This happens when fragile capillaries around sweat glands break, causing blood to mix with sweat. Such a condition is typically triggered by intense stress or fear. Symptoms can include headache, abdominal pain, nausea, and anxiety, all of which are consistent with the severe stress Jesus experienced.

Luke’s account portrays Jesus in deep anguish, and other Gospels also emphasize his distress, as He was aware that His death was imminent.

Matthew 26:37-38 He took Peter and the two sons of Zebedee along with him, and he began to be sorrowful and troubled. Then he said to them, “My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and keep watch with me.”

Mark 14:33-34 He took Peter, James and John along with him, and he began to be deeply distressed and troubled. “My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death,” he said to them. “Stay here and keep watch.”

After being betrayed by Judas Iscariot (Matthew 26:47-50, Mark 14:43-46, Luke 22:47-48, John 18:2) and abandoned by His disciples (Matthew 26:56, Mark 14:50), Jesus was arrested and brought before the Jewish leaders and the Sanhedrin (the highest council of the Jews), who sought to execute Him. However, they couldn’t find any evidence against Him. Eventually, they falsely accused Him of blasphemy (Matthew 26:65-66, Mark 14:63-64), a crime punishable by death (Leviticus 24:16). Jesus was then subjected to beatings and mockery.

Matthew 26:67 Then they spit in his face and struck him with their fists. Others slapped him…

Mark 14:65 Then some began to spit at him; they blindfolded him, struck him with their fists, and said, “Prophesy!” And the guards took him and beat him.

Luke 22:63-65 The men who were guarding Jesus began mocking and beating him. They blindfolded him and demanded, “Prophesy! Who hit you?” And they said many other insulting things to him.

Although the Jewish leaders convicted Jesus of blasphemy, they sent Him to Pontius Pilate, a Roman governor, to be executed. This was because only the Romans had the authority to carry out capital punishment at that time.

John 18:31 (New Living Translation) “Then take him away and judge him by your own law,” Pilate told them. “Only the Romans are permitted to execute someone,” the Jewish leaders replied.

John 18:31 (Contemporary English Version) Pilate told them, “Take him and judge him by your own laws.” The crowd replied, “We are not allowed to put anyone to death.”

After the first trial before the Sanhedrin, Jesus faced a second trial with the Romans. Very early in the morning, He was brought to Pilate (Mark 15:1, Luke 22:66, John 18:28). Pilate found no wrongdoing in Him and sent Him to Herod. Herod and his soldiers mocked Jesus but found no basis for charges against Him. Jesus was then returned to Pilate. Pilate wanted to release Jesus, especially during the Passover tradition of releasing a prisoner (John 18:39). However, the Jewish leaders insisted on releasing Barabbas, a notorious criminal, instead. Pilate, yielding to their demand, had Jesus flogged and handed Him over to be crucified.

Scourging Before Crucifixion

At this point, the Bible does not elaborate on the specific flogging process Jesus endured before His crucifixion. However, it was common for male criminals to be flogged as a Roman punishment before crucifixion. Roman citizens, like Apostle Paul, were often exempt from this punishment (Acts 22:22-29). Flogging, also known as scourging, involved lashing the criminal with a lead-tipped whip to severely weaken and disfigure them, but usually not to the point of death. The New Living Translation Bible mentions the use of such a whip in the accounts of Jesus’ flogging (Matthew 27:26, Mark 15:15, John 19:1).

During the scourging procedure, the criminal was first stripped of clothing, leaving his body fully exposed. Then, he was bound to a post, rendering him helpless. The instrument used was a short whip known as a flagellum or flagrum, made of several leather thongs or ropes. Small pieces of metal and bone shards were tied at intervals along the whip’s length. The lashes were delivered with full force, causing immediate bruising and progressively cutting through the skin and deep into the muscles. This brutal process often resulted in hypovolemic shock, characterized by symptoms such as nausea, profuse sweating, dizziness, low blood pressure, and loss of consciousness—a life-threatening condition that could lead to death. This torture, however, was only the beginning of the punishment.

In addition to being whipped, the soldiers placed a crown of thorns on Jesus’ head and a staff in His right hand, mocking Him once more. They spat on Him and struck His head repeatedly with the staff (Matthew 27:29-30, Mark 15:17-19). Jesus was also slapped in the face (John 19:2-3). After mocking Him, they dressed Him again in His own clothes and led Him away to be crucified.

The crown of thorns placed on Jesus’ scalp could irritate the trigeminal nerve, one of the body’s most sensitive nerves responsible for transmitting pain, touch, and temperature sensations from the face to the brain. This likely caused sharp, jabbing pain affecting His forehead, eyes, and upper jaw. The thorns themselves could create multiple puncture wounds, lacerations, and profuse bleeding, intensifying the sharp pain around His head. Additionally, Jesus endured repeated blows to the head, driving the thorns deeper into His scalp and forehead, worsening the puncture wounds and increasing bleeding. Already weakened from the scourging, the crown of thorns would have exacerbated His hypovolemic shock, a severe condition due to significant blood loss. These head injuries, akin to traumatic brain injury (TBI), could also have occurred from the repeated strikes to His head.

After enduring beatings during His Jewish trial and a brutal scourging by Roman soldiers, Jesus must have been exhausted and weakened. Despite having no time to recover from the shock and immense pain, He was then led to His crucifixion.

Specifications of the Cross

Criminals condemned to crucifixion were required to carry their own cross to the execution site. The cross consisted of two parts: the horizontal crossbeam (patibulum) and the vertical post (stipes). While the exact measurements and weight of the cross varied, it was generally estimated to weigh over 136 kilograms (300 pounds). The patibulum, which the condemned person carried, weighed between 34 to 57 kilograms (75 to 125 pounds) and could be around 2 meters (6 feet) long. The stipes, anchored in the ground, likely weighed between 70 to 90 kilograms (150 to 200 pounds) and stood approximately 2.1 to 3 meters (6 to 9 feet) tall. This height ensured that the crowd could see both the condemned individual and the titulus—a sign displaying the criminal’s name and crime—attached above his head.

John 19:20 Many of the Jews read this sign, for the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city, and the sign was written in Aramaic, Latin and Greek.

Since many Jews could read the sign, it indicates that the cross was tall enough for nearby observers to see it. Given Jesus’ severe weakening from the brutal scourging, it suggests that He may have been too weak to carry the entire cross. Instead, He bore the patibulum— the crossbeam— across His shoulders, with His arms likely bound to prevent it from falling. The vertical post (stipes) was already fixed at the execution site. Even carrying the patibulum alone proved arduous. With little strength remaining, Jesus likely stumbled or fell along the way. The Bible recounts that Simon of Cyrene was compelled to carry the cross for Jesus (Matthew 27:32, Mark 15:21, Luke 23:26).

The wood used to crucify Jesus was undoubtedly rough and unrefined. Crucifixion was intended to inflict maximum suffering, so the wood did not require smoothing or polishing. Over time and through repeated use for executions, the cross would have become worn and uneven. This rough texture could cause splinters and abrasions on the skin of the condemned person, exacerbating their wounds whenever they moved. This not only inflicted additional injuries but also increased the risk of infection.

The sedulum (Latin for ‘seat’) was a small projection or ledge sometimes attached to the stipes (vertical post of the cross) to support the weight of the crucified person. While it may initially appear to offer comfort, its purpose was actually to prolong the suffering of the criminal. The shape and design of the sedulum were such that it increased discomfort rather than alleviating pain.

Essentially, the cross was meant to cause extreme pain for those sentenced to it. As a capital punishment, crucifixion was designed to be fatal. Even if others tried to help or provide medical assistance while the person was on the cross, survival was unlikely due to the severe injuries inflicted.

The Crucifixion

Before Jesus was nailed to the cross, He was offered wine mixed with myrrh or gall, which He refused to drink (Matthew 27:34, Mark 15:23). Myrrh was traditionally used as a pain-reliever, and it was given to Jesus to ease His suffering.

Matthew 27:34 (Contemporary English Version) There they gave Jesus some wine mixed with a drug to ease the pain. But when Jesus tasted what it was, he refused to drink it.

Mark 15:23 (Contemporary English Version) There they gave him some wine mixed with a drug to ease the pain, but he refused to drink it.

After refusing the drink, Jesus may have been forced down to the ground, adding to the trauma before being nailed to the cross. Archaeological evidence reveals that crucifixion nails were typically 12 to 18 centimeters (5 to 7 inches) long, necessary to penetrate flesh and bone to secure the body on the cross. These nails had a diameter of about 1 centimeter (0.3 inches), providing the strength to support a human body and prevent any movement or struggle by the person. Experiments suggest Jesus would have been nailed through the wrists rather than the palms, as the palms couldn’t support the weight of His arms and upper body. Archaeological discoveries have shown nails found in the heel bones of a man, indicating that nailing through the ankles or feet could also have been used to immobilize criminals.

After Jesus was nailed to the cross and the titulus reading “The King of the Jews” was attached to the patibulum, soldiers prepared to hoist Him onto the stipes using ropes or other lifting devices. Jesus was now fully exposed to the crowd, enduring mockery and insults (Matthew 27:39-44, Mark 15:29-32, Luke 23:35-39), alongside two other robbers (Luke 23:32). As Jesus hung on the cross, soldiers divided His clothes among themselves (Matthew 27:35, Mark 15:24, Luke 23:34, John 19:23-24). Deserted, dehydrated, humiliated, and in immense physical pain, Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning, dying by three in the afternoon (Mark 15:25, 33-37). Following His death, the two robbers had their legs broken, but Jesus’ side was pierced with a spear, resulting in a sudden flow of blood and water (John 19:31-34).

Medical Aspects on Jesus’ Crucifixion

Since the Bible does not detail the specific torments Jesus endured, understanding the agony of crucifixion can be challenging. Below is a comprehensive but not exhaustive list of some of the medical aspects that Jesus may have suffered until His death on the cross.

Hypovolemic Shock

Jesus endured brutal lashings that tore His skin and muscles, resulting in significant blood loss. Additionally, the crown of thorns pierced His head, causing further bleeding. Adequate blood flow to the brain is essential for carrying oxygen and nutrients necessary for the body to function.

Dislocation of Shoulders and Muscle Fatigue

As the body hangs, being nailed to the cross, it would sag occasionally due to exhaustion, pain, and gravity. The weight of the body and strain on the limbs often lead to a slumped posture. Since Jesus was immobilized, He couldn’t adjust or move to relieve pressure, which could cause muscle spasms. To stay alive, those being crucified had to push up with their legs to breathe. Eventually, as their muscles tired, they would die from suffocation. In some cases, like with the two robbers, their legs were broken to hasten death.

Nerve Pain

Because the nails were likely driven through the wrists rather than the palms, they would have injured the median nerve, impairing movement in the hands, including the forearm, wrists, and fingers. This injury would have caused unbearable pain when attempting to move the hands while nailed.

Asphyxiation (Suffocation)

As Jesus hung on the cross with His arms outstretched and His body suspended downward, His chest and diaphragm were stretched, preventing normal chest expansion and contraction. This difficulty made it challenging for Him to breathe normally. To exhale, He would have needed to exert significant effort by pushing His body upward to relieve pressure on the diaphragm. As breathing became more arduous, His body would have suffered from oxygen deprivation, leading to hyperventilation. Suffocation, caused by the inability to breathe properly, was one of the primary reasons for death in crucifixion.

Hyperventilation

During hypoxia (oxygen deprivation), the heart may accelerate its beating in response to the reduced oxygen supply. Hypoxia can also lead to hyperventilation, where breathing becomes rapid and deep as the body attempts to compensate.

Organ Failure

As the body is deprived of oxygen, its organs begin to shut down, leading to organ failure.

The factors listed likely contributed to Jesus’ physical death. It’s important to note that the effects of crucifixion He endured happened simultaneously, not just sequentially.

Sacrifice of Jesus, the Passover Lamb

It is undeniable that Jesus, our Savior, demonstrated His love for us by dying in our place. The Bible tells us that Christ’s sacrifice fulfills the role of the Passover lamb.

1 Corinthians 5:7-8 Get rid of the old yeast, so that you may be a new unleavened batch—as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed.

Jesus went through crucifixion to fulfill the prophecies of the Bible and to fulfill His role as the Passover lamb. That is why the Bible says we are redeemed through the precious blood of Christ.

1 Peter 1:18-19 For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed from the empty way of life handed down to you from your ancestors, but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb without blemish or defect.

To receive redemption through the precious blood of Christ, we must partake in the Passover of the New Covenant. It is written that Jesus eagerly desired to celebrate the Passover with His disciples before His suffering.

Luke 22:15 And he said to them, “I have eagerly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer.

Jesus explained to His disciples that we partake of His flesh and blood through the bread and wine of the Passover.

Luke 22:19-20 And he took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to them, saying, “This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me.” In the same way, after the supper he took the cup, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.

To honor Christ’s sacrifice and ensure it remains meaningful, let us faithfully observe the Passover of the New Covenant, remembering the immense suffering He endured.